Category: Mariano Vallejo

Rethinking General Vallejo

Mariano Vallejo, Sonoma home, 1885 (Sonoma County History & Genealogy Library)

Enthralled with the legend of General Marino Vallejo, at the age of ten I set off with a friend on a pilgrimage to the Petaluma Adobe. I had attended Old Adobe Fiesta Days with my parents and seen the square dancing, Indian dances, and the whiskerino contests, but after reading a short biography of the general, my friend and I became determined to ride our sting-ray bikes up Casa Grande Road, the route Vallejo used for hauling cattle hides and tallow to his dock on the Petaluma slough, our own Yellow Brick Road to the local Land of Oz.

Fifty years later, I struggle to reconcile my early admiration of Vallejo with what I’ve since come to learn about the man. While September 27th each year is intended as a day to honor the historic and cultural contributions of California Native Americans, it’s difficult to do so without also acknowledging the tragic losses they incurred at the hands of colonists like Vallejo.

State parks archaeologist Breck Parkman touches upon some of that legacy in his recent studies of the trade relationship between Vallejo and the Russian mercantile colony at Fort Ross. Citing new English translations of archival Russian documents, Parkman highlights the different approaches Vallejo and the Russians took with the native community, particularly during the smallpox epidemic of 1837-39. Spread by one of Vallejo’s soldiers after he returned from a cargo-run to Fort Ross with the disease, the epidemic decimated most of the natives in the Sonoma-Napa region. Their bones, often left unburied, “bleached the hills.”

Parkman began exploring the epidemic back in 2006, after the New Year’s Eve Storm that flooded parts of Petaluma. Concerned about an earlier excavation of a native camp along Adobe Creek, Parkman went to the site and found that a good part of the creekbank had collapsed during the flood, exposing the “New Year Feature”— a long trench into which burned native homes and their contents had been buried. No body remains were found, but along with his colleague Susan Alvarez, Parkman determined that the trench (since destroyed) was most likely used by Vallejo in trying to contain the smallpox epidemic.

Vallejo with elderly Pomo woman, 1878 (Sonoma County History & Genealogy Library)

In the Vallejo biography I read as a boy, the epidemic was depicted as a natural tragedy, one the general was helpless to prevent. Except that he wasn’t. Vaccine for smallpox had been available in California since the early 1800s. According to historian S.F. Cook, after a smallpox (or perhaps measles) outbreak in 1828, the Mexican government had inoculated an estimated 12,000-16,000 clerics, soldiers, and native mission acolytes from San Diego to Sonoma.

When smallpox first appeared in 1837, the Russians quickly vaccinated their native workers at Fort Ross, suffering only a few deaths. Vallejo did not. Except for inoculating a few allies like Chief Solano, he reserved the vaccine for fellow Californios. As a result, most of Vallejo’s 2,000 workers at the Adobe died. The Petaluma Adobe, which Vallejo operated more as a factory than a military fort, exporting grain, livestock, and woolen textiles, never fully recovered.

Vallejo’s reasons for not providing natives with the vaccine are unknown. As one of the most powerful men in California, it’s doubtful he lacked the clout to obtain it (the Russians had reportedly supplied Mexicans the vaccine for the 1828 epidemic). But while revered as one of California’s most enlightened men, Vallejo was also at times egotistical, autocratic, and Machiavellian. An admirer of the Romans, he saw echoes of their empire building in the Spanish-Mexican conquest of California’s native “barbarians” by a small group of “civilized men.”

That was evident at times in his treatment of the natives. After Vallejo converted the Petaluma Valley into a vast ranch of 12,000 to 15,000 cattle, eliminating much of its wild game, natives who had resisted indentured servitude at his factory resorted to killing cattle to feed themselves. In one case, after 35 cattle went missing, Vallejo ordered 35 natives indiscriminately rounded up and shot. Other acts of cruelty—murder, rape, and abduction—were carried out by his brother Salvador and main enforcer Chief Solano.

Petaluma Adobe from Casa Grande Road, 1970 (photo Sherman Bolvin, Sonoma County History & Genealogy Library)

On our personal sojourn to the Petaluma Adobe some fifty years ago, my friend and I only made it as far as Casa Grande Road, then a rural lane, before being stopped by falling darkness. A deputy sheriff found us and drove us home. In retrospect, that was probably best, given what Dorothy found when she reached the Land of Oz and pulled back the curtain on the wizard.

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A version of this article previously appeared in the Petaluma Argus-Courier.

The Petaluma Adobe’s First Pandemic

by Arthur Dawson & John Sheehy

In March of 1828, three years after leaving Missouri, mountain man James Pattie found himself locked in a Mexican prison cell in San Diego. He and his father were charged with being illegal immigrants. As the months ticked by, Alta California’s first smallpox epidemic began sweeping through the territory. James’ father also died that year while incarcerated, though of other causes. To his son’s good fortune, he left behind a valuable inheritance—a vial of smallpox vaccine.

Learning that Pattie knew how to administer the serum, California Governor Echeandia offered to release him on condition that he vaccinate the inhabitants of California. Accepting the offer, Pattie began traveling from mission to mission, treating thousands of Hispanic settlers and indigenous people on the way. His original supply was augmented by vaccine the Mexicans acquired from Russian ships calling at San Diego and Monterey. From San Francisco he made his way across the bay and overland to the Russian settlement at Fort Ross, where he also administered the vaccine. On his return to San Francisco, Pattie was officially freed. There is no mention in his first-hand account of visiting either the San Rafael or Sonoma missions.

Up until Pattie’s time, California had escaped serious epidemics. This was partly due to its remoteness. The onset of human pandemics has been attributed to the shift from hunting and gathering societies to more settled agricultural communities and cities. Living in closer quarters set the stage for outbreaks of tuberculosis, influenza, measles and other infectious diseases, which over the course of human history have killed as many as a billion people. Like coronavirus, smallpox is an airborne disease that spreads quickly. Coughing, sneezing, and sharing clothing can all lead to infection. In the Old World, smallpox killed three out of ten people it infected and left the rest scarred and sometimes blind.

As Europeans settled the New World, their diseases readily infected the native people, who had no previous exposure or immunity. Over fifty million perished of smallpox and other diseases after European contact; about ninety percent of the original population of the Americas. In the 1790s, back in England, British doctor Edward Jenner tested the idea that milkmaids infected with cowpox, a milder disease, were immune to smallpox. He proved it by inoculating a 9-year-old boy with cowpox and then exposing him to smallpox with no ill effect.
Although the Spanish did their best to screen those they sent to settle

California, international travel remained a primary avenue for the spread of disease. The smallpox outbreak of 1828 was introduced by a foreign vessel that docked in San Francisco. Seven years later, smallpox appeared in Sitka, Alaska, the capital of Russian America, likely arriving on a ship from across the Pacific.

What followed fits a pattern that has been noted since Roman times—epidemics begin in ports of entry and spread from there. Within a year, it had reached hundreds of miles north over much of modern-day Alaska and south into British territory around Puget Sound. The British managed to vaccinate people ahead of the outbreak and stalled the spread of the virus in the summer of 1837. Whatever efforts the Russians made, on the other hand, were not successful in containing it.

Map by Arthur Dawson

Smallpox soon arrived by Russian ship at Fort Ross. By then, California missions had been disbanded by the Mexican government. General Vallejo had taken possession of the Sonoma mission property and established a military presence. In late 1837, before the virus was detected, he sent a cavalry unit led by corporal Ignacio Miramontes and accompanied by Indian auxiliaries, to Fort Ross to bring back supplies for the troops at Sonoma.

Whole villages were struck down without a single survivor. Platon Vallejo, the General’s son and a doctor, described how: “long trenches were dug, none too deep; great numbers of bodies were hastily thrown in and the earth, with equal haste, replaced.” In other cases the dead were cremated. Sometimes the toll was beyond the abilities of the living to handle at all. For years after, the bones of thousands “often left unburied, bleached the hills” of Sonoma and Napa Counties. Chief Solano, Vallejo’s friend, estimated that his tribe, which had numbered in many thousands, was reduced to just 200 survivors. The death toll may have exceeded ninety percent, on par with other places in the Americas.

The epidemic in the North Bay continued into 1839. Pattie’s efforts ten years earlier seem to have given some protection to those tribes to the south. According to Platon, most Mexicans were vaccinated and did not suffer the same fate as the indigenous people. Chief Solano, one of the few natives vaccinated by Vallejo, survived. No one knows why Vallejo never vaccinated his native laborers or native soldiers. Was it prejudice or a lack of vaccine or expertise? As with the coronavirus, an inability to grasp the situation before it was too late, may have also played a role.

Today, we’re all hoping for a modern James Pattie to deliver a vaccine for the current pandemic. After hearing stories from New York and Italy, we can appreciate the terror of those earlier times. Pestilence no longer sounds like an old-fashioned word. But perhaps we can also take heart from the fact that, nearly two centuries after the smallpox pandemic of 1838, Sonoma County’s native peoples are still here. In spite of everything, they have quietly achieved a cultural renewal in recent years—an encouraging sign of how deeply hope and resilience dwell within the human spirit.

A version of this story appeared in the Santa Rosa Press Democrat, April 5, 2020.